Reiki

Reiki (??^?, English pronunciation: /'re?ki?/) is a spiritual practice^[1] developed in 1922 by Japanese Buddhist Mikao Usui. The teaching was continued and adapted by various teachers. It uses a technique commonly called palm healing as a form of complementary and alternative medicine and is sometimes classified as oriental medicine by some professional bodies.^[2] Through the use of this technique, practitioners claim to transfer healing energy in the form of ki through the palms.^[3]

There are two main branches of Reiki, commonly referred to as Traditional Japanese Reiki and Western Reiki. Within both Traditional and Westernised forms of Reiki, there are three forms of degrees, commonly referred to as the First, Second, and Master/Teacher degree. According to Reiki practitioners and Masters, at First Degree, a Reiki practitioner is able to heal himself and others, at Second Degree is able to heal others distantly (commonly called distant healing) with the use of specialised symbols, and at Master level (specifically Master/Teacher level) is able to teach and attune others to Reiki.

A 2008 systematic review of randomised clinical trials concluded that "the evidence is insufficient to suggest that reiki is an effective treatment for any condition. Therefore the value of reiki remains unproven."^[4]

The English word reiki, meaning "a Japanese treatment in alternative medicine", derives from the Japanese loanword reiki (??, meaning "mysterious atmosphere"), which derives from the Chinese loanword língqì (??, "supernatural influence"). It is comprehensively defined by the Oxford English Dictionary,

Reiki, n. Alternative Med. Brit. /'re?ki/, U.S. /'re?ki/. Forms: also with capital initial.

[‹ Japanese reiki, specialised use of a term usually meaning 'mysterious atmosphere, miraculous sign' (1001; compare Chinese língqì numinous atmosphere) ‹ rei soul, spirit (‹ Middle Chinese) + ki vital energy (‹ the Middle Chinese base of Chinese qì chi n.²).]

The spiritual life force, or vital spiritual energy, said to reside in all living things (cf. chi n.²). Hence: a therapy, apparently based on an ancient Tibetan Buddhist technique, developed in Japan in the late 19th or early 20th cent. by Dr Mikao Usui (1865–1926), in which the therapist channels this energy through him- or herself into the patient by the gentle laying on of hands, to activate the natural healing processes of the patient's body and restore physical and emotional well-being.^[5]

The OED lists 1975 as the earliest recorded usage of the word reiki.^[6] Instead of the usual transliteration, some English-language authors loosely translate reiki as "universal life energy",^[7] which is different from the Japanese meaning.

Japanese reiki, meaning "mysterious atmosphere", is commonly written either ?? in shinjitai kanji (new Chinese character forms) or as ??? in katakana syllabary (typically used for transcribing foreign words). It compounds the words rei ? meaning "departed spirit, ghost; spirit, soul; miraculous, sacred, divine" and ki ? "gas, vapor; atmosphere; vital energy, spirit, breath of life, vitality; energy, force; natural phenomenon; spirit, mind, consciousness…"^[8] This ki (namely, Chinese qi or chi) in reiki is understood as meaning "spiritual energy; vital energy; life force; energy of life".^[9] Some reiki translation equivalents from Japanese-English dictionaries are: "feeling of mystery",^[10] "an atmosphere (feeling) of mystery",^[11] and "an ethereal atmosphere (that prevails in the sacred precincts of a shrine); (feel, sense) a spiritual (divine) presence."^[12] Besides the usual Sino-Japanese pronunciation reiki, these kanji ?? have an alternate Japanese reading, namely ryoge, meaning "demon; ghost" (especially in spirit possession).^[13]

Chinese língqì ?? was first recorded in the (ca. 320 BCE) Neiye "Inward Training" section of the Guanzi, describing early Daoist meditation techniques. "That mysterious vital energy within the mind: One moment it arrives, the next it departs. So fine, there is nothing within it; so vast, there is nothing outside it. We lose it because of the harm caused by mental agitation."^[14] Standard Chinese língqì is translated by Chinese-English dictionaries as: "(of beautiful mountains) spiritual influence or atmosphere";^[15] "1. intelligence; power of understanding; 2. supernatural power or force in fairy tales; miraculous power or force";^[16] and "1. spiritual influence (of mountains/etc.); 2. ingeniousness; cleverness".^[17]

Origins

See also Five Precepts and Timeline of Reiki history

The system of Reiki was developed by Mikao Usui (????) in 1922 whilst performing Isyu Guo, a twenty-one day Buddhist training course held on Mount Kurama.^[18] It is not known for certain what Usui was required to do during this training, though it most likely involved meditation, fasting, chanting, and prayer.^[19][20] It is claimed that by a mystical revelation, Usui had gained the knowledge and spiritual power to apply and attune others to what he called Reiki, which entered his body through his crown Chakra.^[19] In April 1922, Usui moved to Tokyo and founded the Usui Reiki Ryoho Gakkai ("????????" in Traditional Mandarin, meaning Usui's Spiritual Energy Therapy Method Society) in order to continue treating people on a large scale with Reiki.^[19][21]

According to the inscription on his memorial stone,^[22] Usui taught his system of Reiki to over 2000 people during his lifetime, and sixteen of these students continued their training to reach the Shinpiden level, a level equivalent to the Western third, or Master/Teacher, degree.^[22][23] While teaching Reiki in Fukuyama (???, Fukuyama-shi), Usui suffered a stroke and died on 9 March 1926.^[22]

Early development

After Usui's death, Mr. J. Ushida, a student of Usui, took over as president of the Gakkai.^[24] He was also responsible for creating and erecting Usui's memorial stone and ensuring that the grave site would be maintained.^[24] Mr. Ushida was followed by Mr. Iichi Taketomi, Mr. Yoshiharu Watanabe, Mr. Kimiko Koyama and the current successor to Usui, Mr. Kondo, who became president in 1998.^[24] The sixteen Masters initiated by Usui include Toshihiro Eguchi, Jusaburo Guida, Ilichi Taketomi, Toyoichi Wanami, Yoshihiru Watanabe, Keizo Ogawa, J. Ushida, and Chujiro Hayashi.^[24][25]

Before Usui's death, Chujiro Hayashi (? ??? Hayashi Chujiro) approaced Usui about developing a different form of Reiki that was much simpler. Usui agreed.^[26] After Usui's death, Hayashi left the Usui Reiki Ryoho Gakkai and formed his own clinic where he gave Reiki treatments, taught, and attuned people to Reiki, and it was to this clinic that Hawayo Takata was directed.^[24] Hayashi simplified the Reiki teachings, stressing physical healing and using a more codified and simpler set of Reiki techniques.^[27]

After multiple Reiki sessions from Hayashi's trainees at his clinic for illnesses including abdominal pain and asthma, Hayashi initiated and trained Takata to use Reiki,^[28][29] and was made a Reiki Master on 21 February 1938.^[28][30] Takata established several Reiki clinics throughout Hawaii, one of which was located in Hilo,^[28] and then went on to travel throughout the United States, practising Reiki and teaching the first two levels to others,^[31] and it was not until 1970 that Takata began initiating Reiki Masters.^[32] At this stage, Takata also introduced the term Reiki Master for the Shinpiden level.^[33] She stressed the importance of charging money for Reiki treatments and teachings, and fixed a price of $10,000 (roughly £6,500 or €7,400) for the Master training.^[32]

Takata died on 11 December 1980,^[32][34] by which time she had trained 22 Reiki masters,^[35][36] and almost all Reiki taught outside Japan can be attributed to her work.^[37]

 Five Principles

Usui was an admirer of the literary works of the Emperor Meiji (???? Meiji tenno). While in the process of developing his Reiki system, Usui summarised some of the emperor's works into a set of ethical principles, which later became known as the Five Reiki Precepts (?? Gokai, meaning "The Five Commandments," from the Buddhist teachings of being prohibited against killing, thievery, sexual misconduct, lying, and for intemperance). It is common for many Reiki teachers and practitioners to abide by these five precepts, or principles.^[38]

Traditions

Today many branches of Reiki exist, though there exist two major traditions, respectively called Traditional Japanese Reiki and Western Reiki.

Traditional Japanese Reiki

The term Traditional Japanese Reiki is normally used to describe the specific system that formed from Usui's original teachings^[39] and the teachings that did not leave Japan. During the 1990s, Western teachers travelled to Japan in order to find this particular tradition of Reiki, though found nothing. They therefore started to establish Reiki schools, and started to teach Reiki levels 1 and 2 to the Japanese. Around 1993, a German Reiki Master, Frank Arjava Petter, also started to teach to the Master/Teacher level, and as a result, the Japanese started teaching their knowledge of Traditional Reiki. Since then, several traditions of Traditional Japanese Reiki have been established, the main traditions of which are listed below.^[40]

• Usui Reiki Ryoho Gakkai (???????? in Traditional Chinese Characters, meaning "Usui Reiki Healing Method Learning Society")^[41] is the name of the society of Reiki masters founded by Mikao Usui. His style is assumed to have survived to the present day (assumed as no-one knows exactly how the Gakkai practises nowadays), with Ushida being the one who, upon death, substituted the presidency of the association. This society remained secret for many years and at present, the shihan (master), Masaki Kondoh, is the president of the Gakkai. Though many of their teachings still remain secret, little by little, members of this association - such as Master Hiroshi Doi - have been sharing their knowledge with the rest of the world. In spite of this, it continues to be a hermetic society, nearly impossible to access.

• Reido Reiki Gakkai (??????, meaning "Spiritual Occurrence [and] Spiritual Energy Society") is the name given to the system that derives from the masters of the Ryoho Gakkai, and is led by Fuminori Aoki, who added to the teaching of the Gakkai, though differences in teaching are minimal. In this system, the Koriki (meaning "the force of happiness") symbol that inspired Fuminori Aoki has been adopted.^[42][43]

• Komyo Reiki Kai (??????, meaning "Enlightened Spiritual Energy Meeting (Association)") is the name given to the system that takes the name of a school of Japanese Traditional Reiki, and was established by Hyakuten Inamoto (?? ??), a Reiki teacher with Western Reiki background. It differs from other systems in that it does not originate with the Gakkai, but instead comes from the Hayashi line, through Chiyoko Yamaguchi (?? ???) that remained in Japan.

• Jikiden Reiki (????, meaning "The Direct Teaching [of] Spiritual Energy") is the name given to the original system that was taught by Dr. Hayashi, and was founded by Mrs. Yamaguchi and her son, Tadao Yamaguchi (?? ??).^[44]

The Japanese Reiki hand positions presented in the Usui Reiki Ryoho Hikkei (????????, Usui Reiki Treatment Handbook) as used and compiled by Usui are considerably more extensive than the hand positions used in Western Reiki.^[45]

 Western Reiki

Western Reiki (?????, Seiyo reiki) is a system that can be accredited to Hawayo Takata.^[46] The principal difference between the traditions is the use of set hand patterns for internal treatments instead of Reiji-ho, the intuitive skill of "knowing where to place the hands."^[40] This style Reiki places more emphasis on the healing of ailments, and ascension to higher levels of attunement is more formalised.^[40]

After being trained by Hayashi, Takata went back to Hawaii, taking Reiki with her. After setting up clinics there, Reiki then spread to the rest of the Western world. As a result of the second world war, Takata decided to modify the Traditional Japanese Reiki system in order to make it more understandable and credible to the mentality of the West.

• Usui Reiki Shiki Ryoho (???????, commonly translated as meaning "Usui's Spiritual Energy Style of Therapy", but a more literal translation is "Usui's Spiritual Energy Style of Medical Treatment" (Ryoho (??) meaning medical treatment)) is the name given to the Western system of Reiki, and is a system that has tried to stay near enough the same as the original practises of Hawayo Takata. It is taught today by, for instance, the Reiki Alliance, led by Phyllis Lei Furumoto, Takata's granddaughter.^[47] In this system, as with most Western systems of Reiki, there are three levels, respectively called the First Degree, Second Degree, and Master/Teacher Degree, which uses Takata's versions of the four original symbols passed to her by Hayashi. Usui Reiki Shiki Ryoho is also the norm requested qualification (along with Reiki lineage) when seeking insurance to practise Reiki on the general public in the United Kingdom.^[48]

• Usui/Tibetan Reiki is the name given to the system that was developed by Arthur Robertson and later popularised by William Lee Rand and Diane Stein.^[49][50] This system is derived from Usui Reiki as taught by Takata and includes techniques from the Usui Reiki Ryoho Gakkai, such as Byosen-ho (???, Scanning Method), Gyoshi-ho (???, Healing Eyes Method), and Kenyoku-ho (????, Dry Bathing Method). There have been a few additions to this system in comparison with Usui Shiki Ryoho by Rand, such as a modified attunement method that incorporates the Violet Breath,^[49] the use of the Tibetan Master and kundalini fire symbols along with the four traditional Usui symbols, the hui yin position (located in the perineum), and also the microcosmic orbit.^[49] Along with introducing the above, Usui/Tibetan Reiki can sometimes incorporate psychic surgery. Unlike Usui Reiki Shiki Ryoho, it has four levels, commonly called First Degree, Second Degree, Advanced Reiki Training (commonly 3A or ART), and Master/Teacher (commonly 3B).^[49]

• Gendai Reiki Ho (?????, meaning "Modern Spiritual Energy Method") is a system that incorporates elements of both Japanese and Western Reiki,^[51] and was established by Hiroshi Doi.^[51] Doi was first trained in Western Reiki by Mieko Mitsui, a Master of the "Radiance Technique."^[52] In 1993, he was granted membership to Usui Reiki Ryoho Gakkai.^[52]

 Teachings

Reiki teachings claim that Reiki is inexhaustible^[53][54] and that it can be used to induce a healing effect.^[55] Practitioners claim that anyone can gain access to this energy^[56] by means of an attunement process^[57] carried out by a Reiki Master.^[58]

Reiki is described by adherents as a holistic therapy which brings about healing on physical, mental, emotional and spiritual levels.^[59] The belief is that the energy will flow through the practitioner's hands whenever the hands are placed on, or held near a potential recipient. Some teachings stress the importance of the practitioner's intention or presence in this process, while others claim that the energy is drawn by the recipient's injury to activate or enhance the natural healing processes.^[60] Further to this notion, the belief is that the energy is "intelligent",^[61] meaning that the Reiki knows where to heal, even if a practitioner's hands are not present in the specific area.

 Training

The teaching of Reiki outside of Japan is commonly divided into three levels,^[62] or degrees, the most common of which are described below. Traditional Japanese Reiki was taught intensively under Usui's guidance, with weekly meditation meetings where Reiki was given and used to scan the body in order to supply an energetic diagnosis,^[63] which is known in Japanese as Byosen-ho, as a Japanese Reiki treatment is intuitive and specifically directed in comparison to a Western Reiki treatment, which tends to generally treat the whole body instead of specific areas.

First degree

The first degree Reiki course,^[64] sometimes given the Japanese name of Shoden ("??" in Japanese, meaning "'Elementary/Entry Teachings"),^[65] teaches the basic theories and procedures. A number of "attunements" are given to the student by the teacher.^[66] Students learn hand placement positions on the recipient's body that are thought to be most conducive to the process in a whole body treatment.^[67] Having completed the first degree course, a Reiki practitioner can then treat himself and others with Reiki. Course duration is dependent on the Reiki Master Teacher; some hold four sessions spread over a number of days, others hold two sessions over two days.^[68]

Second degree

In the second degree Reiki course,^[69] sometimes given the Japanese name of Okuden ("??" in Japanese, meaning "Inner Teachings"),^[70] the student learns the use of a number of symbols that are said to enhance the strength and distance over which Reiki can be exerted.^[71] This involves the use of symbols to form a temporary connection between the practitioner and the recipient, regardless of location and time, and then to send the Reiki energy.^[72][73] Another attunement is given, which is said to further increase the capacity for Reiki to flow through the student, as well as empowering the use of the symbols.^[74] Having completed the second level, the student can work without being physically present with the recipient - a practise known as "distant healing".^[75] Students in Japan sometimes only attained the Second Degree after a period of 10, sometimes 20, years of practice under Usui's tutorship, and the majority of student never attained the Third Degree.^[76]

Third degree

Through the third degree, or "master training",^[77] sometimes given the Japanese name of Shinpiden ("???" in Japanese, meaning "Mystery Teachings"),^[78] the student becomes a Reiki Master. In Reiki terminology, the word "master" does not imply spiritual enlightenment, and is sometimes changed to "Master/Teacher" in order to avoid this confusion. According to the specific branch of Reiki, either one or more attunements can be carried out and the student learns a further symbol.^[79] Having completed the master training, the new Reiki Master can attune other people to Reiki and teach the three degrees. The duration of the master training can be anything from a day to a year or more, depending on the school and philosophy of the Reiki Master giving the training. There are commonly two types of Master: Master Teacher and Master Practitioner; a Master Teacher is a Master of Reiki and also has the ability teach Reiki (i.e., attune others), though a Master Practitioner is a Master of Reiki but does not teach Reiki.

Variations

There is much variation in training methods, speed of completion (i.e., attunement), and costs. Though there is no accreditation and central body for Reiki, nor any regulation of its practice, there exist organisations within the United Kingdom that seek to standardise Reiki and Reiki practises, such as the UK Reiki Federation^[80] and the Reiki Council (UK).^[81] Reiki courses are also available online, although traditionalists state that attunement must be done in person in order to take effect, as the Reiki Master/Teacher doing the attunement must be able to actually touch the energy field of the person being attuned. A distance Reiki attument is not always recognised by certain Reiki federations, such as with the UK Reiki Federation, who state, "[a]ll training must have been "in-person" or "face to face" (distant attunements are not accepted)."^[82] Some traditionalists also hold the ideal that methods that teach Reiki "quickly" cannot yield as strong an effect, because there is no substitute for experience and patience when mastering Reiki.

Practice

In Western Reiki, it is taught that Reiki works in conjunction with the meridian energy lines and chakras through the use of the hand-positions, which normally correspond to the seven major chakras on the body. These hand-positions are used both on the front and back of the body, and can include specific areas (see localised treatment). According to authors such as James Deacon, Usui used only five formal hand-positions, which focused on the head and neck.^[83] After Reiki had been given first to the head and neck area, specific areas of the body where imbalances were present would then be treated.^[83] The use of the chakras is widespread within Western Reiki, though not as much within Traditional Japanese Reiki, as it concentrates more on treating specific areas of the body after using techniques such as Byosen-ho and Reiji-ho, which are used to find areas of dis-ease (discomfort) in the auras and physical body.

 Healing

Usui Reiki Ryoho does not use any medication or instruments, but uses looking, blowing, light tapping, and touching.^[84] According to Frank Arjava Petter, Usui touched the diseased parts of the body, he massaged them, tapped them lightly, stroked them, blew on them, fixed his gaze upon them for two to three minutes, and specifically gave them energy,^[85] and used a technique commonly referred to as palm healing as a form of complementary and alternative medicine. Through the use of this palm healing (sometimes referred to as "tenohira" (?, meaning "the palm"), practitioners transfer healing energy in the form of qi through the palms.^[3]

Whole body treatment

In a typical whole-body Reiki treatment,^[86] the Reiki practitioner instructs the recipient to lie down, usually on a massage table, and relax. Loose, comfortable clothing is usually worn during the treatment. The practitioner might take a few moments to enter a calm or meditative state of mind and mentally prepare for the treatment,^[87] that is usually carried out without any unnecessary talking.^[88]

The treatment proceeds with the practitioner placing the hands on the recipient in various positions. However, practitioners may use a non-touching technique, where the hands are held a few centimetres away from the recipient's body for some or all of the positions. The hands are usually kept in a position for three to five minutes before moving to the next position. Overall, the hand positions usually give a general coverage of the head, the front and back of the torso, the knees, and feet. Between 12 and 20 positions are used, with the whole treatment lasting anywhere from 45 to 90 minutes.^[89]

Many Western practitioners use a common fixed set of 12 hand positions,^[63] while others use their intuition to guide them as to where treatment is needed^[90] as is the practise in Traditional Japanese Reiki, sometimes starting the treatment with a "scan" of the recipient to find such areas. The intuitive approach might also lead to individual positions being treated for much shorter or longer periods. A Western Reiki treatment is considered a type of large-scale treatment in comparison to the more localised-style treatment of Traditional Japanese Reiki.^[76]

The use of the 12 hand positions energise on many levels,^[76] by,

• Energising on a physical level through the warmth of the hands,
• Energising on the mental level through the use of the Reiki symbols,
• Energising on the emotional level through the love that flows with the use of the symbols,
• Energising on the energetic level though the presence of an initiated practitioner as well as the presence of the Reiki power itself.^[76]

It is reported that the recipient often feels warmth or tingling in the area being treated, even when a non-touching approach is being used. A state of deep relaxation, combined with a general feeling of well-being, is usually the most noticeable immediate effect of the treatment, although emotional releases can also occur.^[91] As the Reiki treatment is said to stimulate the body's natural healing processes, instantaneous "cures" of specific health problems are not normally observed. A series of three or more treatments, typically at intervals of one to seven days, is usually recommended if a chronic condition is being addressed,^[89] and regular treatments on an on-going basis can be used with the aim of maintaining well-being. The interval between such treatments is typically in the range of one to four weeks, except in the case of self-treatment where daily practice is common.^[89]

 Localised treatment

Localised Reiki treatment involves the practitioner's hands being held on or near a specific part of the body for a varying length of time. Recent injuries are usually treated in this way,^[92] with the site of injury being targeted. There is great variation in the duration of such treatments, though 20 minutes is typical. Takata described "localised treatment" as 'hands-on work,' compared to distant or "absent healing."^[93]

Some practitioners use localised treatments for certain ailments, and some publications have tabulated appropriate hand positions,^[94][95] However, other practitioners prefer to use the whole body treatment for all chronic conditions, on the grounds that it has a more holistic effect.^[96] Another approach is to give a whole body treatment first, followed by a localised treatment for any specific ailments.^[97]

Usui used specific hand positions to treat specific ailments and dis-eases (discomfort),^[98] which included disorders of the nervous system (such as hysteria),^[99] respiratory disorders (such as inflammation of the trachea),^[100] digestive disorders (such as gastric ulcers),^[101] circulatory disorders (such as chronic high blood pressure),^[102] metabolism and blood disorders (such as anaemia),^[103] urogenital tract disorders (such as nephritis),^[104] skin disorders (such as inflammation of the lymph nodes),^[105] childhood disorders (such as measles),^[106] women’s health disorders (such as morning sickness),^[107] and contagious disorders (such as typhoid fever).^[108]

Breathing

Though the specific use of breath and breathing is central to many styles of Japanese Reiki, it is often a neglected topic in Western Reiki.^[109] Usui taught a technique called Joshin Kokyu-ho (?????), which roughly translates as "the breathing method for cleansing the spirit," though literally translates as "Goddess Breath Method".^[85] Joshin Kokyu-ho is performed by sitting straight, with the back aligned, breathing in slowly through the nose. As the practitioner inhales, s/he also breathes the Reiki energy in through the crown Chakra in order to purify the body and make it fit for the flow of Reiki, and is drawn down into the tanden.^[85]

Three Pillars of Reiki

Along with the five Reiki principles, Usui based his Reiki system on three other practises; Gassho, Reiji-ho, and Chiryo.^[110]

Gassho

Gassho ("??" in Japanese, meaning "two hands coming together") is a meditative state where both palms of the hands are placed together, and was practised each time at the beginning of Usui's Reiki workshops/meetings. One technique of Gassho is to concentrate on the pads where the two middle fingers meet.^[110]

Reiji-ho

Reiji-ho (???, meaning "indication of the Reiki power method") is a means of connecting with the Reiki power by asking it to flow through the practitioner three times, and is commonly split into three parts. The first part is to ask the Reiki power to flow through the practitioner. It will either enter through the crown chakra (as this is the highest ascension), the heart chakra (as indicated by the pure love of Reiki), or the hands (as the palms are attuned with specific Reiki symbols). A student of the Second Degree can use the third/distance symbol to connect with the Reiki along with the first/power symbol; the distance symbol is sent first and is then sealed with the power symbol.^[111]

The second part is to pray for the recovery of the person if a specific ailment is being healed, or for the general health of the person if otherwise.^[111]

The third part is to place both hands, palms facing each other, to the third eye (the area in between the two eyebrows), and ask the Reiki power to guide the hands to where energy is needed.^[111] Though similar to the practice of Byosen-ho, Reiji-ho relies specifically on intuition of where to heal, whereas Byosen-ho scans for areas with the hands, feeling for subtle changes in the aura of the practitioner's hands and the aura of the recipient.

Chiryo

Chiryo ("??" in Japanese, meaning "(medical) treatment") requires the practitioner to place his/her dominant hand on the crown chakra and wait for hibiki (??, "feedback") in the form of an impulse or inspiration, which the hand then follows. During Chiryo, the practitioner gives free rein to the hand, touching painful areas of the body until the area no longer hurts or until the hands move on their own to another area.^[112]